Supernatural beliefs and ritual observances of the ancient Greeks, commonly related to a diffuse and contradictory body of stories and legends. The salient features of this religion were anthropomorphic polytheism (a multiplicity of individualistic divinities having human form and feelings), the absence of any established canon or authoritative revelation such as the Judeo-Christian Scriptures, a strong ritualism, and almost complete subordination of religious life to the state. Apart from the mystery cults, most of the early religion in Greece has little asceticism and mystical rapture, which were Asian importations and did not become conspicuous until the Hellenistic period (about 323–146 bc). At its first appearance in classical literature, Greek mythology had already received its definitive form. Some divinities were either introduced or developed more fully at a later date, but in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the major Olympian gods appear in substantially the forms they retained until the dissolution of paganism. Homer usually is considered responsible for the highly developed anthropomorphism and the comparative rationalism that characterized Greek religious thought. In general Greek gods were divided into those of heaven, earth, and sea; frequently, however, the gods governing the earth and sea constituted a single category.
Principal Divinities.
The celestial gods were thought to dwell in the sky or on Mount Olympus in Thessaly. The earth, or chthonic (Gr. chthon, “earth”), deities were thought to dwell on or under the earth, and were closely associated with the heroes and the dead. The lines separating these divine orders were indefinite, and the deities of one order were not infrequently found in another. The gods were held to be immortal; yet they were also believed to have had a beginning. They were represented as exercising control over the world and the forces of nature. This control, however, was limited by Ananke, the personification of necessity, to which even the gods bowed.
At the head of the divine hierarchy was Zeus, the spiritual father of gods and men. His wife was Hera, queen of heaven and guardian of the sanctity of marriage. Associated with them as the chief divinities of heaven were Hephaestus, god of fire and the patron of metalworkers; Athena, the virgin goddess of wisdom and war, preeminent as a civic goddess; Apollo, deity of light, poetry, and music, and his sister Artemis, goddess of wildlife and, later, of the moon; Ares, god of war, and his consort, Aphrodite, goddess of love; Hermes, the divine messenger, later, god of science and invention; and Hestia, goddess of the hearth. Around these greater gods and goddesses were grouped a host of lesser deities, some of whom enjoyed particular distinction in certain localities. Among them were Helios, the sun; Selene, the moon (antedating Artemis); the attendants of the Olympians, such as the Graces; the Muses; Iris, goddess of the rainbow; Hebe, goddess of youth and cupbearer of the gods; and Ganymede, the male counterpart of Hebe. The sea was ruled by Poseidon, the worship of whom was often accompanied by worship of his wife, Amphitrite. In their train were the Nereids, Tritons, and other minor sea deities.
The chief chthonic deities were Hades, ruler of the underworld, and his wife, Persephone, the daughter of Demeter. Demeter herself was usually accounted an Olympian, but as the bestower of grain and the knowledge of agriculture, she was more closely connected with the earth. Another Olympian whose tutelary functions were likewise of an earthly character was Dionysus, god of the grape and of wine. He was accompanied by bands of satyrs, the horsetailed sylvan demigods; Sileni, the plump, bald vintage deities; and maenads, nymphs who celebrated the orgiastic rites of Dionysus. Also among the more important divinities of the Greek pantheon were Gaea, the earth mother; Asclepius, the god of healing; and Pan, the great Arcadian god of flocks, pastures, and forests.
Invocation of the Gods.
The ancient Greeks had a strong sense of weakness before the grand and terrifying powers of nature, and they acknowledged their dependence on the divine beings by whom they believed those powers to be controlled. In general, the relations between gods and mortals were cordial, divine wrath being reserved for those who transgressed the limits assigned to human activities and who, by overweening pride, reckless ambition, or even immoderate prosperity, provoked divine displeasure and brought upon themselves Nemesis, the personification of retributive justice. The saying of the historian Herodotus, “The god suffers none but himself to be proud,” epitomizes a philosophy that pervades the whole of classical Greek literature. The sense of human limitation was thus an integral feature of Greek religion; the gods, the sole source of the good or evil that befell mortals, were approached with invocation and sacrifice in thanksgiving for past blessings or in entreaty for future favors.
In front of many a street door stood the conical stone of Apollo Agyieus (Apollo of the Thoroughfare); in the courtyard was placed the altar of Zeus Herkeios (Zeus as the patron of family ties); at the hearth Hestia was worshiped; and bedchamber, kitchen, and storeroom each had its appropriate divinity. From birth to death the ancient Greek invoked the gods on every memorable occasion. Because the very existence of the state was believed to depend on divine favor, the festivals of the gods were celebrated with devout regularity under the supervision of high officials, and public gratitude for unexpected deliverance or unusual prosperity was marked by rich votive offerings.
Organization and Beliefs.
Despite its central position in both private and public life, Greek religion was notably lacking in an organized professional priesthood. At the sites of the mysteries, as at Eleusis, and the oracles, as at Delphi, the priests exercised great authority, but usually they were merely official representatives of the community, chosen as other officers were, or sometimes permitted to buy their position. Even when the office was hereditary or confined to a certain family, it was not regarded as conferring upon its possessor any particular knowledge of the will of the gods or any special power to constrain them. The Greeks saw no need for an intermediary between themselves and their gods.
Greek ideas about the soul and the afterlife were indefinite, but it was apparently the popular belief that the soul survived the body. It either hovered about the tomb or departed to a shadowy region where it led a melancholy existence in need of the offerings brought by relatives. The disembodied soul was also presumed to have the power of inflicting injury on the living, and proper funeral rites were held necessary to ensure the peace and goodwill of the deceased.
Within the framework of Greek anthropomorphic polytheism are vestiges of primitive animism, the belief that all natural objects are endowed with spirits. Fetishism, the belief in the magical efficacy of objects employed as talismans against evil, was another feature of early Greek religion. Examples of fetishes are the sacred stones, sometimes regarded as images of specific deities, such as the pyramidal Zeus at Phlius or the rough stones called the Graces at the ruined city of Orchomenus in Boeotia.
Origins.
Ancient Greek religion has been the subject of speculation and research from classic times to the present. Herodotus believed that the rites of many of the gods had been derived from the Egyptians. Prodicus of Ceos (fl. 5th cent. bc), a Sophist philosopher, seems to have taught that the gods were simply personifications of natural phenomena, such as the sun, moon, winds, and water. Euhemerus (370?–298 bc), a mythographer, in his Sacred History, gave expression to ideas long prevalent when he interpreted the myths as distortions of history and the gods as idealized heroes of the past. In modern times, studies along etymological and anthropological lines have produced the theory that Greek religion resulted from the synthesis of Indo-European beliefs with ideas and customs native to the Mediterranean countries, the original inhabitants of those lands having been conquered by Indo-European invaders.
The basic elements of classical Greek religion were, in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, somewhat modified and supplemented by the influences of philosophy, Middle Eastern cults, and changes in popular belief (as shown, for instance, in the rise of the cult of Fortune, or Tyche). The main outlines of the official religion, however, remained unchanged.
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116. Greek mythology.
An article from Funk & Wagnalls® New Encyclopedia. © 2006
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